Evidence-Based Hormone Therapies

Growth hormone

Growth hormone is a major hormone with prominent roles. First, growth hormone is a major anabolic hormone that powerfully builds the body and is responsible for a great part of the growth that takes place during childhood and puberty. Growth hormone increases the size and volume of the brain, skin, hair, muscles, bones and internal organs. Without growth hormone, we would all be dwarfs!  In adults, growth hormone substantially helps to maintain the appropriate volume and tone of the skin, muscle and bone. A decrease in growth hormone production causes an acceleration of the aging process: our skin, muscle, and tissues begin to atrophy and sag, wrinkles and fat begin to replace our once smooth skin and muscles.

Second, growth hormone increases the function, repair, and health of muscles, heart, lungs, liver, kidneys, joints, nerves and the brain. Growth hormone’s mental and emotional impact is substantial because growth hormone stimulates the parasympathetic nerves, which contain many mood-calming neurons.  Thanks to this effect many patients on growth hormone treatment report feeling calmer, experiencing feelings of inner peace and a clear increase in the overall quality of life, and ability to concentrate and cope with stress. Via these mechanisms, growth hormone may relieve depression, anxiety, and nervousness.

 

Growth hormone therapy on healthy young and middle-aged adults: 68 placebo-controlled studies
  1. Guan Y, He F, Wu J, Zhao L, Wang X, Huang L, Zeng G, Ren B, Chen J, Liao X, Ma Z, Chen X, Zhong G, Huang M, Zhao X. A long-acting pegylated recombinant human growth hormone (Jintrolong(®)) in healthy adult subjects: Two single-dose trials evaluating safety, tolerability and pharmacokinetics. J Clin Pharm Ther. 2018 Oct;43(5):640-646.
  2. Gilfoyle D, Mortensen E, Christoffersen ED, Leff JA, Beckert M. A first-in-man phase 1 trial for long-acting TransCon Growth Hormone. Growth Horm IGF Res. 2018 Apr;39:34-39.
  3. Kramer WG, Jaron-Mendelson M, Koren R, Hershkovitz O, Hart G. Pharmacokinetics, Pharmacodynamics, and Safety of a Long-Acting Human Growth Hormone (MOD-4023) in Healthy Japanese and Caucasian Adults. Clin Pharmacol Drug Dev. 2018 Jun;7(5):554-563.
  4. Lewis AL, Jordan F, Patel T, Jeffery K, King G, Savage M, Shalet S, Illum L. Intranasal human growth hormone (hgh) induces IGF-1 levels comparable with subcutaneous injection with lower systemic exposure to hGH in healthy volunteers. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2015 Nov;100(11):4364-71.
  5. Keane J, Tajouri L, Gray B. The Effect of Growth Hormone Administration on the Regulation of Mitochondrial Apoptosis in-Vivo. Int J Mol Sci. 2015 Jun 5;16(6):12753-72..
  6. Rasmussen MH, Olsen MW, Alifrangis L, Klim S, Suntum M. A reversible albumin-binding growth hormone derivative is well tolerated and possesses a potential once-weekly treatment profile. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2014 Oct;99(10):E1819-29
  7. Tavares AB, Micmacher E, Biesek S, Assumpção R, Redorat R, Veloso U, Vaisman M, Farinatti PT, Conceição F. Effects of Growth Hormone Administration on Muscle Strength in Men over 50 Years Old. Int J Endocrinol. 2013;2013:942030.
  8. Velloso CP, Aperghis M, Godfrey R, Blazevich AJ, Bartlett C, Cowan D, Holt RI, Bouloux P, Harridge SD, Goldspink G. The effects of two weeks of recombinant growth hormone administration on the response of IGF-I and N-terminal pro-peptide of collagen type III (P-III-NP) during a single bout of high resistance exercise in resistance-trained young men. Growth Horm IGF Res. 2013 Jun;23(3):76-80.
  9. Ramos SB, Brenu EW, Christy R, Gray B, McNaughton L, Tajouri L, Van Driel M, Marshall-Gradisnik SM. Assessment of immune function after short-term administration of recombinant human growth hormone in healthy young males. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2011 Jul;111(7):1307-12.
  10. Rasmussen MH, Jensen L, Anderson TW, Klitgaard T, Madsen J. Multiple doses of pegylated long-acting growth hormone are well tolerated in healthy male volunteers and possess a potential once-weekly treatment profile. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2010 Dec;73(6):769-76.
  11. Meinhardt U, Nelson AE, Hansen JL, Birzniece V, Clifford D, Leung KC, Graham K, Ho KK. The effects of growth hormone on body composition and physical performance in recreational athletes: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2010 May 4;152(9):568-77.
  12. Rasmussen MH, Bysted BV, Anderson TW, Klitgaard T, Madsen J. Pegylated long-acting human growth hormone is well-tolerated in healthy subjects and possesses a potential once-weekly pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic treatment profile. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010 Jul;95(7):3411-7.
  13. Nelson AE, Meinhardt U, Hansen JL, Walker IH, Stone G, Howe CJ, Leung KC, Seibel MJ, Baxter RC, Handelsman DJ, Kazlauskas R, Ho KK. Pharmacodynamics of growth hormone abuse biomarkers and the influence of gender and testosterone: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study in young recreational athletes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008 Jun;93(6):2213-22.
  14. Erotokritou-Mulligan I, Bassett EE, Kniess A, Sönksen PH, Holt RI. Validation of the growth hormone (GH)-dependent marker method of detecting GH abuse in sport through the use of independent data sets. Growth Horm IGF Res. 2007 Oct;17(5):416-23.
  15. Ehrnborg C, Ohlsson C, Mohan S, Bengtsson BA, Rosén T. Increased serum concentration of IGFBP-4 and IGFBP-5 in healthy adults during one month’s treatment with supraphysiological doses of growth hormone. Growth Horm IGF Res. 2007 Jun;17(3):234-41.
  16. Powrie JK, Bassett EE, Rosen T, Jørgensen JO, Napoli R, Sacca L, Christiansen  JS, Bengtsson BA, Sönksen PH; GH-2000 Project Study Group. Detection of growth hormone abuse in sport. Growth Horm IGF Res. 2007 Jun;17(3):220-6.
  17. Krag MB, Gormsen LC, Guo Z, Christiansen JS, Jensen MD, Nielsen S, Jørgensen JO. Growth hormone-induced insulin resistance is associated with increased intramyocellular triglyceride content but unaltered VLDL-triglyceride kinetics. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2007 Mar;292(3):E920-7.
  18. Giannoulis MG, Jackson N, Shojaee-Moradie F + Sonksen PH, Martin FC, Umpleby AM. Effects of growth hormone and/or testosterone on very low density lipoprotein apolipoprotein B100 kinetics and plasma lipids in healthy elderly men: a randomised controlled trial. Growth Horm IGF Res. 2006 Oct-Dec;16(5-6):308-17.
  19. Chung L, Clifford D, Buckley M, Baxter RC. Novel biomarkers of human growth hormone action from serum proteomic profiling using protein chip mass spectrometry. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006 Feb;91(2):671-7.
  20. Healy ML, Gibney J, Pentecost C, Croos P, Russell-Jones DL, Sönksen PH, Umpleby AM. Effects of high-dose growth hormone on glucose and glycerol metabolism at rest and during exercise in endurance-trained athletes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006 Jan;91(1):320-7.
  21. Ehrnborg C, Ellegård L, Bosaeus I, Bengtsson BA, Rosén T. Supraphysiological growth hormone: less fat, more extracellular fluid but uncertain effects on muscles in healthy, active young adults. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2005 Apr;62(4):449-57.
  22. Berggren A, Ehrnborg C, Rosén T, Ellegård L, Bengtsson BA, Caidahl K. Short-term administration of supraphysiological recombinant human growth hormone (GH) does not increase maximum endurance exercise capacity in healthy, active young men and women with normal GH-insulin-like growth factor I axes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005 Jun;90(6):3268-73.
  23. Giannoulis MG, Boroujerdi MA, Powrie J, Dall R, Napoli R, Ehrnborg C, Pentecost C, Cittadini A, Jørgensen JO, Sonksen PH; GH-2000 Study Group. Gender differences in growth hormone response to exercise before and after rhGH administration and the effect of rhGH on the hormone profile of fit normal adults. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2005 Mar;62(3):315-22.
  24. Yuen K, Frystyk J, Umpleby M, Fryklund L, Dunger D. Changes in free rather than total insulin-like growth factor-I enhance insulin sensitivity and suppress endogenous peak growth hormone (GH) release following short-term low-dose GH administration in young healthy adults. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004 Aug;89(8):3956-64.
  25. Hameed M, Lange KH, Andersen JL, Schjerling P, Kjaer M, Harridge SD, Goldspink G. The effect of recombinant human growth hormone and resistance training onIGF-I mRNA expression in the muscles of elderly men. J Physiol. 2004 Feb 15;555(Pt 1):231-40.
  26. Napoli R, Guardasole V, Angelini V, D’Amico F + Zarra E, Matarazzo M, Saccà L. Acute effects of growth hormone on vascular function in human subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003 Jun;88(6):2817-20.
  27. Lange KH, Larsson B, Flyvbjerg A, Dall R, Bennekou M, Rasmussen MH, Ørskov H, Kjaer M. Acute growth hormone administration causes exaggerated increases in plasma lactate and glycerol during moderate to high intensity bicycling in trained young men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002 Nov;87(11):4966-75.
  28. Hansen TK, Gravholt CH, ØRskov H, Rasmussen MH, Christiansen JS, Jørgensen JO. Dose dependency of the pharmacokinetics and acute lipolytic actions of growth hormone. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002 Oct;87(10):4691-8.
  29. Wallace JD, Cuneo RC, Bidlingmaier M, Lundberg PA, Carlsson L, Boguszewski CL, Hay J, Boroujerdi M, Cittadini A, Dall R, Rosén T, Strasburger CJ. Changes in non-22-kilodalton (kDa) isoforms of growth hormone (GH) after administration of 22-kDa recombinant human GH in trained adult males. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001 Apr;86(4):1731-7.
  30. Dall R, Longobardi S, Ehrnborg C, Keay N, Rosén T, Jørgensen JO, Cuneo RC, Boroujerdi MA, Cittadini A, Napoli R, Christiansen JS, Bengtsson BA, Sacca L, Baxter RC, Basset EE, Sönksen PH. The effect of four weeks of supraphysiological growth hormone administration on the insulin-like growth factor axis in women and men. GH-2000 Study Group. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2000 Nov;85(11):4193-200.
  31. Peñarrubia J, Balasch J, García-Bermúdez M, Casamitjana R, Vanrell JA, Hernandez ER. Growth hormone does not increase the expression of insulin-like growth factors and their receptor genes in the pre-menopausal human ovary. Hum Reprod. 2000 Jun;15(6):1241-6.
  32. Longobardi S, Keay N, Ehrnborg C, Cittadini A, Rosén T, Dall R, Boroujerdi MA, Bassett EE, Healy ML, Pentecost C, Wallace JD, Powrie J, Jørgensen JO, Saccà L. Growth hormone (GH) effects on bone and collagen turnover in healthy adults and its potential as a marker of GH abuse in sports: a double blind, placebo-controlled study. The GH-2000 Study Group. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2000 Apr;85(4):1505-12.
  33. Hashimoto Y, Kamioka T, Hosaka M, Mabuchi K, Mizuchi A, Shimazaki Y, Tsunoo M, Tanaka T. Exogenous 20K growth hormone (GH) suppresses endogenous 22K GH secretion in normal men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2000 Feb;85(2):601-6
  34. Wallace JD, Cuneo RC, Lundberg PA, Rosén T, Jørgensen JO, Longobardi S, Keay N, Sacca L, Christiansen JS, Bengtsson BA, Sönksen PH. Responses of markers of bone and collagen turnover to exercise, growth hormone (GH) administration, and GH withdrawal in trained adult males. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2000 Jan;85(1):124-33.
  35. Nørrelund H, Fisker S, Vahl N, Børglum J, Richelsen B, Christiansen JS, Jørgensen JO. Evidence supporting a direct suppressive effect of growth hormone on serum IGFBP-1 levels. Experimental studies in normal, obese and GH-deficient adults. Growth Horm IGF Res. 1999 Feb;9(1):52-60
  36. Wolthers T, Grøfte T, Nørrelund H, Poulsen PL, Andreasen F + Christiansen JS, Jørgensen JO. Differential effects of growth hormone and prednisolone on energy metabolism and leptin levels in humans. 1998 Jan;47(1):83-8.
  37. Berneis K, Ninnis R, Girard J, Frey BM, Keller U. Effects of insulin-like growth factor I combined with growth hormone on glucocorticoid-induced whole-body protein catabolism in man. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1997 Aug;82(8):2528-34.
  38. Møller J, Møller N, Frandsen E, Wolthers T, Jørgensen JO, Christiansen JS. Blockade of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system prevents growth hormone-induced fluid retention in humans. Am J Physiol. 1997 May;272(5 Pt 1):E803-8.
  39. Skjaerbaek C, Frystyk J, Møller J, Christiansen JS, Orskov H. Free and total insulin-like growth factors and insulin-like growth factor binding proteins during 14 days of growth hormone administration in healthy adults. Eur J Endocrinol. 1996 Dec;135(6):672-7.
  40. Wolthers T, Lemming L, Grøfte T, Møller N, Christiansen JS, Klausen IC, Jørgensen JO. Effects of growth hormone on serum lipids and lipoproteins: possible significance of increased peripheral conversion of thyroxine to triiodothyronine. 1996 Aug;45(8):1016-20.
  41. Ellis KJ, Lee PD, Pivarnik JM, Bukar JG, Gesundheit N. Changes in body composition of human immunodeficiency virus-infected males receiving insulin-like growth factor I and growth hormone. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1996 Aug;81(8):3033-8.
  42. Gunn AJ, Gunn TR, Rabone DL, Breier BH, Blum WF + Gluckman PD. Growth hormone increases breast milk volumes in mothers of preterm infants. Pediatrics. 1996 Aug;98(2 Pt 1):279-82.
  43. Oehri M, Ninnis R, Girard J, Frey FJ, Keller U. Effects of growth hormone and IGF-I on glucocorticoid-induced protein catabolism in humans. Am J Physiol. 1996 Apr;270(4 Pt 1):E552-8.
  44. Wolthers T, Grøftne T, Møller N, Christiansen JS, Orskov H, Weeke J, Jørgensen JO. Calorigenic effects of growth hormone: the role of thyroid hormones. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1996 Apr;81(4):1416-9.
  45. Bergh C, Carlström K, Selleskog U, Hillensjö T. Effect of growth hormone on follicular fluid androgen levels in patients treated with gonadotropins before in vitro fertilization. Eur J Endocrinol. 1996 Feb;134(2):190-6.
  46. Moller J, Jorgensen JO, Frandsen E, Laursen T, Christiansen JS. Body fluids, circadian blood pressure and plasma renin during growth hormone administration: a placebo-controlled study with two growth hormone doses in healthy adults. Scand J Clin Lab Invest. 1995 Dec;55(8):663-9.
  47. Ovesen P, Møller J, Jørgensen JO, Møller N, Christiansen JS. Effect of growth hormone administration on circulating levels of luteinizing hormone, follicle stimulating hormone and testosterone in normal healthy men. Hum Reprod. 1993 Nov;8(11):1869-72
  48. Kappel M, Hansen MB, Diamant M, Jørgensen JO, Gyhrs A, Pedersen BK. Effects of an acute bolus growth hormone infusion on the human immune system. Horm Metab Res. 1993 Nov;25(11):579-85.
  49. Møller N, Møller J, Jørgensen JO, Ovesen P, Schmitz O, Alberti KG, Christiansen JS. Impact of 2 weeks high dose growth hormone treatment on basal and insulin stimulated substrate metabolism in humans. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1993 Nov;39(5):577-81.
  50. Breier BH, Milsom SR, Blum WF + Schwander J, Gallaher BW, Gluckman PD. Insulin-like growth factors and their binding proteins in plasma and milk after growth hormone-stimulated galactopoiesis in normally lactating women. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh). 1993 Nov;129(5):427-35.

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Higher quality of life and energy: the association with higher GH and/or IGF-1 levels (11 references)
  1. Nageeb RS, Hashim NA, Fawzy A. Serum insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) in multiple sclerosis: relation to cognitive impairment and fatigue. Egypt J Neurol Psychiatr Neurosurg. 2018;54(1):25.
  2. Lucia Casadonte CJ, Brown J, Strople J, Neighbors K, Fei L, Alonso EM. Low Insulin-like Growth Factor-1 Influences Fatigue and Quality of Life in Children With Inflammatory Bowel Disease. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2018 Nov;67(5):616-621.
  3. Barbosa JA, Salvatori R, Oliveira CR, Pereira RM, Farias CT, Britto AV, Farias NT, Blackford A, Aguiar-Oliveira MH. Quality of life in congenital, untreated, lifetime isolated growth hormone deficiency. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2009 Jul;34(6):894-900
  4. Wexler T, Gunnell L, Omer Z, Kuhlthau K, Beauregard C, Graham G, Utz AL, Biller B, Nachtigall L, Loeffler J, Swearingen B, Klibanski A, Miller KK. Growth hormone deficiency is associated with decreased quality of life in patients with prior acromegaly. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009 Jul;94(7):2471-7
  5. Kołtowska-Häggström M, Kind P, Monson JP, Jonsson B. Growth hormone (GH) replacement in hypopituitary adults with GH deficiency evaluated by a utility-weighted quality of life index: a precursor to cost-utility analysis. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2008 Jan;68(1):122-9.

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Low quality of life and fatigue: the improvement with GH treatment (41 references)
  1. González Briceño LG, Viaud M, Beltrand J, Flechtner I, Dassa Y, Samara-Boustani D, Thalassinos C, Pauwels C, Busiah K, Pinto G, Jaquet D, Polak M. Improved general and height-specific quality of life in children with short stature after one year on growth hormone.J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2019 Jun 1;104(6):2103-2111
  2. Jørgensen JO, Hermansen K, Stochholm K, Juul A. Adult growth hormone deficiency: from transition to senescence.Pediatr Endocrinol Rev. 2018 Sep;16(Suppl 1):70-79.
  3. Boekhoff S, Bogusz A, Sterkenburg AS, Eveslage M, Müller HL. Long-term effects of growth hormone replacement therapy in childhood-onset craniopharyngioma: results of the german craniopharyngioma registry (hit-endo). Eur J Endocrinol. 2018 Oct 12;179(5):331-341.
  4. Van Bunderen CC, Deijen JB, Drent ML. Effect of low-normal and high-normal IGF-1 levels on memory and wellbeing during growth hormone replacement therapy: a randomized clinical trial in adult growth hormone deficiency. Health Qual Life Outcomes. 2018 Jul 6;16(1):135
  5. Glynn N, Kenny H, Salim T, Halsall DJ, Smith D, Tun TK, McDermott JH, Tormey W, Thompson CJ, McAdam B, O’ Gorman D, Agha A. Alterations in thyroid hormone levels following growth hormone replacement exert complex biological effects. Endocr Pract. 2018 Apr;24(4):342-350

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High mood, happiness: the association with higher GH and/or IGF-1 levels (13 references)
  1. Leonhardt M, Kopczak A, Schäpers B, Limbrock J, Sämann PG, Czisch M, von Steinbuechel N, Jordan M, Schneider HJ, Schneider M, Sievers C, Stalla GK. Low Prevalence of isolated growth hormone deficiency in patients after brain injury: results from a phase ii pilot study. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne).2018 Dec 17;9:723.
  2. Pastuszak Ż, Stępień A, Kamiński G, Deptuła-Krawczyk E, Trawińska L, Kryszak A. Analysis of growth hormone levels in the blood of patients with drug‑resistant depression. Pol Arch Intern Med. 2018 Apr 30;128(4):263-265.
  3. Abe S, Okumura A, Mukae T, Nakazawa T, Niijima S, Yamashiro Y, Shimizu T. Depressive tendency in children with growth hormone deficiency. J Paediatr Child Health. 2009 Nov;45(11):636-40.
  4. McMillan CV, Bradley C, Gibney J, Healy ML, Russell-Jones DL, Sonksen PH. Psychological effects of the withdrawal of growth hormone therapy from adults with growth hormone deficiency. Clin Endocrinol. (Oxf). 2003 Oct;59(4):467-75
  5. Harro J, Rimm H, Harro M, Grauberg M, Karelson K, Viru AM. Association of depressiveness with blunted growth hormone response to maximal physical exercise in young healthy men. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 1999 Jul;24(5):505-17

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Depression: the improvement with GH treatment (5 references)
  1. Arwert LI, Deijen JB, Müller M, Drent ML. Long-term growth hormone treatment preserves GH-induced memory and mood improvements: a 10-year follow-up study in GH-deficient adult men. Horm Behav. 2005 Mar;47(3):343-9
  2. Mahajan T, Crown A, Checkley S, Farmer A, Lightman S. Atypical depression in growth hormone deficient adults, and the beneficial effects of growth hormone treatment on depression and quality of life. Eur J Endocrinol. 2004 Sep;151(3):325-32
  3. Johansson JO, Larson G, Andersson M, Elmgren A, Hynsjo L, Lindahl A, Lundberg PA, Isaksson OG, Lindstedt S, Bengtsson BA. Treatment of growth hormone-deficient adults with recombinant human growth hormone increases the concentration of growth hormone in the cerebrospinal fluid and affects neurotransmitters. Neuroendocrinology. 1995 Jan;61(1):57-66
  4. Akaltun İ, Çayır A, Kara T, Ayaydın H. Is growth hormone deficiency associated with anxiety disorder and depressive symptoms in children and adolescents?: A case-control study. Growth Horm IGF Res. 2018 Aug;41:23-27.
  5. Abe S, Okumura A, Mukae T, Nakazawa T, Niijima S, Yamashiro Y, Shimizu T. Depressive tendency in children with growth hormone deficiency. J Paediatr Child Health. 2009 Nov;45(11):636-40.
Calmness, low anxiety: the association with higher GH and/or IGF-1 levels (5 references)
  1. Akaltun İ, Çayır A, Kara T, Ayaydın H. Is growth hormone deficiency associated with anxiety disorder and depressive symptoms in children and adolescents?: A case-control study. Growth Horm IGF Res. 2018 Aug;41:23-27.
  2. Tancer ME, Stein MB, Uhde TW. Growth hormone response to intravenous clonidine in social phobia: comparison to patients with panic disorder and healthy volunteers. Biol Psychiatry. 1993 Nov 1;34(9):591-5
  3. Cameron OG, Abelson JL, Young EA. Anxious and depressive disorders and their comorbidity: effect on central nervous system noradrenergic function. Biol Psychiatry. 2004 Dec 1;56(11):875-83
  4. Stabler B. Impact of growth hormone (GH) therapy on quality of life along the lifespan of GH-treated patients. Horm Res. 2001;56 Suppl 1:55-8
  5. Abelson JL, Glitz D, Cameron OG, Lee MA, Bronzo M, Curtis GC. Blunted growth hormone response to clonidine in patients with generalized anxiety disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1991 Feb;48(2):157-62
Anxiety: the improvement with GH treatment (3 references)
  1. Akaltun İ, Çayır A, Kara T, Ayaydın H. Is growth hormone deficiency associated with anxiety disorder and depressive symptoms in children and adolescents?: A case-control study. Growth Horm IGF Res. 2018 Aug;41:23-27.
  2. Arwert LI, Deijen JB, Muller M, Drent ML. Long-term growth hormone treatment preserves GH-induced memory and mood improvements: a 10-year follow-up study in GH-deficient adult men. Horm Behav. 2005 Mar;47(3):343-9
  3. Lasaite L, Bunevicius R, Lasiene D, Lasas L. Psychological functioning after growth hormone therapy in adult growth hormone deficient patients: endocrine and body composition correlates. Medicina (Kaunas). 2004;40(8):740-4
Cognitive performance, good memory: the association with higher GH and/or IGF-1 levels (12 references)
  1. Chaplin JE, Kriström B, Jonsson B, Tuvemo T, Albertsson-Wikland K. Growth hormone treatment improves cognitive function in short children with growth hormone deficiency. Horm Res Paediatr. 2015 Mar 25; 83(6): 1-8
  2. Scratch SE, Anderson PJ, Doyle LW, Thompson DK, Ahmadzai ZM, Greaves RF, Inder TE, Hunt RW. High postnatal growth hormone levels are related to cognitive deficits in a group of children born very preterm. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2015 Jul;100(7):2709-17.
  3. Tanriverdi F, Suer C, Yapislar H, Kocyigit I, Selcuklu A, Unluhizarci K, Casanueva FF, Kelestimur F. Growth hormone deficiency due to sports-related head trauma is associated with impaired cognitive performance in amateur boxers and kickboxers as revealed by P300 auditory event-related potentials. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2013 May;78(5):730-7.
  4. Siemensma EP, Tummers-de Lind van Wijngaarden RF, Festen DA, Troeman ZC, van Alfen-van der Velden AA, Otten BJ, Rotteveel J, Odink RJ, Bindels-de Heus GC, van Leeuwen M, Haring DA, Oostdijk W, Bocca G, Mieke Houdijk EC, van Trotsenburg AS, Hoorweg-Nijman JJ, van Wieringen H, Vreuls RC, Jira PE, Schroor EJ, van Pinxteren-Nagler E, Willem Pilon J, Lunshof LB, Hokken-Koelega AC. Beneficial effects of growth hormone treatment on cognition in children with Prader-Willi syndrome: a randomized controlled trial and longitudinal study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2012 Jul;97(7):2307-14.
  5. Quik EH, Conemans EB, Valk GD, Kenemans JL, Koppeschaar HP, van Dam PS. Cognitive performance in older males is associated with growth hormone secretion. Neurobiol Aging. 2012 Mar;33(3):582-7.

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Dementia: the association with lower GH and/or IGF-1 levels (1 reference)
  1. Watanabe T, Koba S, Kawamura M, Itokawa M, Idei T, Nakagawa Y, Iguchi T, Katagiri T. Small dense low-density lipoprotein and carotid atherosclerosis in relation to vascular dementia. Metabolism. 2004 Apr;53(4):476-82
Memory loss, cognitive impairment: the improvement with GH treatment (10 references)
  1. Dykens EM, Roof E, Hunt-Hawkins H. Cognitive and adaptive advantages of growth hormone treatment in children with Prader-Willi syndrome. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2017 Jan;58(1):64-74.
  2. Bove RM, White CC, Gerweck AV, Mancuso SM, Bredella MA, Sherman JC, Miller KK. Effect of growth hormone on cognitive function in young women with abdominal obesity. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2016 Apr;84(4):635-7.
  3. Chaplin JE, Kriström B, Jonsson B, Tuvemo T, Albertsson-Wikland K. Growth hormone treatment improves cognitive function in short children with growth hormone deficiency. Horm Res Paediatr. 2015 Mar 25; 83(6): 1-8
  4. Siemensma EP, Tummers-de Lind van Wijngaarden RF, Festen DA, Troeman ZC, van Alfen-van der Velden AA, Otten BJ, Rotteveel J, Odink RJ, Bindels-de Heus GC, van Leeuwen M, Haring DA, Oostdijk W, Bocca G, Mieke Houdijk EC, van Trotsenburg AS, Hoorweg-Nijman JJ, van Wieringen H, Vreuls RC, Jira PE, Schroor EJ, van Pinxteren-Nagler E, Willem Pilon J, Lunshof LB, Hokken-Koelega AC. Beneficial effects of growth hormone treatment on cognition in children with Prader-Willi syndrome: a randomized controlled trial and longitudinal study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2012 Jul;97(7):2307-14
  5. Devesa J, Alonso B, Casteleiro N, Couto P, Castañón B, Zas E, Reimunde P. Effects of recombinant growth hormone (GH) replacement and psychomotor and cognitive stimulation in the neurodevelopment of GH-deficient (GHD) children with cerebral palsy: a pilot study. Ther Clin Risk Manag. 2011;7:199-206.

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Sleep disorders, insomnia: the association with lower GH and/or IGF-1 levels (6 references)
  1. van Liempt S, Vermetten E, Lentjes E, Arends J, Westenberg H. Decreased nocturnal growth hormone secretion and sleep fragmentation in combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder; potential predictors of impaired memory consolidation. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2011 Oct;36(9):1361-9.
  2. Verrillo E, Bizzarri C, Cappa M, Bruni O, Pavone M, Ferri R, Cutrera R. Sleep characteristics in children with growth hormone deficiency. 2011;94(1):66-74.
  3. Copinschi G, Nedeltcheva A, Leproult R, Morselli LL, Spiegel K, Martino E, Legros JJ, Weiss RE, Mockel J, Van Cauter E. Sleep disturbances, daytime sleepiness, and quality of life in adults with growth hormone deficiency. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010 May;95(5):2195-202.
  4. Verrillo E, Bruni O, Franco P, Ferri R, Thiriez G, Pavone M, Petrone A, Paglietti MG, Crinò A, Cutrera R. Analysis of nrem sleep in children with Prader-Willi syndrome and the effect of growth hormone treatment. Sleep Med. 2009 Jun;10(6):646-50.
  5. Ismailogullari S, Tanriverdi F, Kelestimur F, Aksu M. Sleep architecture in Sheehan’s syndrome before and 6 months after growth hormone replacement therapy. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2009 Feb;34(2):212-9

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Sleep disorders: the improvement with GH treatment (5 references)
  1. Verrillo E, Bruni O, Franco P, Ferri R, Thiriez G, Pavone M, Petrone A, Paglietti MG, Crinò A, Cutrera R. Analysis of NREM sleep in children with Prader-Willi syndrome and the effect of growth hormone treatment. Sleep Med. 2009 Jun;10(6):646-50
  2. Ismailogullari S, Tanriverdi F, Kelestimur F, Aksu M. Sleep architecture in Sheehan’s syndrome before and 6 months after growth hormone replacement therapy. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2009 Feb;34(2):212-9
  3. Miller J, Silverstein J, Shuster J, Driscoll DJ, Wagner M. Short-term effects of growth hormone on sleep abnormalities in Prader-Willi syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006 Feb;91(2):413-7
  4. Peker Y, Svensson J, Hedner J, Grote L, Johannsson G. Sleep apnoea and quality of life in growth hormone (GH)-deficient adults before and after 6 months of GH replacement therapy. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2006 Jul;65(1):98-105
  5. Astrom C, Pedersen SA, Lindholm J. The influence of growth hormone on sleep in adults with growth hormone deficiency. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1990 Oct;33(4):495-500
Hypercholesterolemia: the association with lower GH and/or IGF-1 levels (11 references)
  1. Chen M, Gan D, Luo Y, Rampersad S, Xu L, Yang S, Li N, Li H. Effect of recombinant human growth hormone therapy on blood lipid and carotid intima-media thickness in children with growth hormone deficiency. Pediatr Res. 2018 May;83(5):954-960.
  2. Kubo T, Furujo M, Takahashi K, Hyodo Y, Tsuchiya H, Hattori M, Fujinaga S, Urayama K. Effects of growth hormone treatment on lipid profiles. Indian J Pediatr. 2018 Apr;85(4):261-265. 5
  3. Rothermel J, Lass N, Bosse C, Reinehr T. Impact of discontinuation of growth hormone treatment on lipids and weight status in adolescents. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2017 Jul 26;30(7):749-757.
  4. De Marco S, Marcovecchio ML, Caniglia D, De Leonibus C, Chiarelli F, Mohn A. Circulating asymmetric dimethylarginine and lipid profile in pre-pubertal children with growth hormone deficiency: effect of 12-month growth hormone replacement therapy. Growth Horm IGF Res. 2014 Oct;24(5):216-20.
  5. Metwalley KA, Farghaly HS, Abd El-Hafeez HA. Evaluation of left ventricular mass and function, lipid profile, and insulin resistance in Egyptian children with growth hormone deficiency: A single-center prospective case-control study. Indian J Endocrinol Metab. 2013 Sep;17(5):876-82.

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Hypercholesterolemia and hypertriglyceridemia: the improvement with GH treatment (17 references)
  1. Chen M, Gan D, Luo Y, Rampersad S, Xu L, Yang S, Li N, Li H. Effect of recombinant human growth hormone therapy on blood lipid and carotid intima-media thickness in children with growth hormone deficiency. Pediatr Res. 2018 May;83(5):954-960.
  2. Kubo T, Furujo M, Takahashi K, Hyodo Y, Tsuchiya H, Hattori M, Fujinaga S, Urayama K. Effects of growth hormone treatment on lipid profiles. Indian J Pediatr. 2018 Apr;85(4):261-265.
  3. Horikawa R, Tanaka T, Nishinaga H, Ogawa Y, Yokoya S. The influence of a long-term growth hormone treatment on lipid and glucose metabolism: a randomized trial in short Japanese children born small for gestational age. Int J Pediatr Endocrinol. 2016;2016:19. Epub 2016 Oct 26.
  4. Ding Y, Si QJ. Effects of recombinant human growth hormone on serum lipid in aged male patients with chronic heart failure. Zhongguo Ying Yong Sheng Li Xue Za Zhi. 2014 May;30(3):247-50.
  5. De Marco S, Marcovecchio ML, Caniglia D, De Leonibus C, Chiarelli F, Mohn A. Circulating asymmetric dimethylarginine and lipid profile in pre-pubertal children with growth hormone deficiency: effect of 12-month growth hormone replacement therapy. Growth Horm IGF Res. 2014 Oct;24(5):216-20.

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Homocysteinemia: the improvement with GH treatment (2 references)
  1. Feldt-Rasmussen B, Lange M, Sulowicz W, Gafter U, Lai KN, Wiedemann J, Christiansen JS, El Nahas M; APCD Study Group. Growth hormone treatment during hemodialysis in a randomized trial improves nutrition, quality of life, and cardiovascular risk. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2007 Jul;18(7):2161-71
  2. Sesmilo G, Biller BM, Llevadot J, Hayden D, Hanson G, Rifai N, Klibanski A. Effects of growth hormone (GH) administration on homocyst(e)ine levels in men with GH deficiency: a randomized controlled trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001 Apr;86(4):1518-2
Atherosclerosis: the association with lower GH and/or IGF-1 levels (11 references)
  1. Chen M, Gan D, Luo Y, Rampersad S, Xu L, Yang S, Li N, Li H. Effect of recombinant human growth hormone therapy on blood lipid and carotid intima-media thickness in children with growth hormone deficiency. Pediatr Res. 2018 May;83(5):954-960.
  2. Strazhesko ID, Tkacheva ON, Akasheva DU, Dudinskaya EN, Plokhova EV, Pykhtina VS, Kruglikova AS, Brailova NV, Sharashkina NV, Kashtanova DA, Isaykina OY, Pokrovskaya MS, Vygodin VA, Ozerova IN, Skvortsov DA, Boytsov SA. Growth hormone, insulin-like growth factor-1, insulin resistance, and leukocyte telomere length as determinants of arterial aging in subjects free of cardiovascular diseases. Front Genet. 2017 Dec 15;8:198.
  3. Binay C, Simsek E, Yıldırım A, Kosger P, Demiral M, Kılıç Z. Growth hormone and the risk of atherosclerosis in growth hormone-deficient children. Growth Horm IGF Res. 2015 Dec;25(6):294-7.
  4. Colao A, Di Somma C, Spiezia S, Savastano S, Rota F, Savanelli MC, Lombardi G. Growth hormone treatment on atherosclerosis: results of a 5-year open, prospective, controlled study in male patients with severe growth hormone deficiency. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008 Sep;93(9):3416-24
  5. Colao A, Di Somma C, Spiezia S, Rota F, Pivonello R, Savastano S, Lombardi G. The natural history of partial growth hormone deficiency in adults: a prospective study on the cardiovascular risk and atherosclerosis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006 Jun;91(6):2191-200

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Atherosclerosis: the improvement with GH treatment (9 references)
  1. Chen M, Gan D, Luo Y, Rampersad S, Xu L, Yang S, Li N, Li H. Effect of recombinant human growth hormone therapy on blood lipid and carotid intima-media thickness in children with growth hormone deficiency. Pediatr Res. 2018 May;83(5):954-960.
  2. Binay C, Simsek E, Yıldırım A, Kosger P, Demiral M, Kılıç Z. Growth hormone and the risk of atherosclerosis in growth hormone-deficient children. Growth Horm IGF Res. 2015 Dec;25(6):294-7.
  3. Colao A, Di Somma C, Spiezia S, Savastano S, Rota F, Savanelli MC, Lombardi G. Growth hormone treatment on atherosclerosis: results of a 5-year open, prospective, controlled study in male patients with severe growth hormone deficiency. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008 Sep;93(9):3416-24
  4. Cenci MC, Conceição FL, Soares DV, Spina LD, Brasil RR, Lobo PM, Michmacher E, Vaisman M. Impact of 5 years of growth hormone replacement therapy on cardiovascular risk factors in growth hormone-deficient adults. Metabolism. 2008 Jan;57(1):121-9
  5. Colao A, Di Somma C, Cuocolo A, Spinelli L, Acampa W, Spiezia S, Rota F, Savanelli MC, Lombardi G. Does a gender-related effect of growth hormone (GH) replacement exist on cardiovascular risk factors, cardiac morphology, and performance and atherosclerosis? Results of a two-year open, prospective study in young adult men and women with severe GH deficiency. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005 Sep;90(9):5146-55

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Arterial hypertension: the association with lower GH and/or IGF-1 levels (3 references)
  1. De Gregorio C, Curtò L, Marini F, Andò G, Trio O, Trimarchi F, Coglitore S, Cannavò S. Systemic hypertension counteracts potential benefits of growth hormone replacement therapy on left ventricular remodeling in adults with growth hormone deficiency. J Endocrinol Invest. 2013 Apr;36(4):243-8.
  2. Barreto-Filho JA, Alcântara MR, Salvatori R, Barreto MA, Sousa AC, Bastos V, Souza AH, Pereira RM, Clayton PE, Gill MS, Aguiar-Oliveira MH. Familial isolated growth hormone deficiency is associated with increased systolic blood pressure, central obesity, and dyslipidemia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002 May;87(5):2018-23.
  3. Landin-Wilhelmsen K, Wilhelmsen L, Lappas G, Rosen T, Lundstedt G, Lundberg PA, Bengtssopn BA. Serum insulin-like growth factor 1 in a random population sample of men and women: relation to age, sex, smoking habits, coffee consumption and physical activity, blood pressure and concentrations of plasma lipids, fibrinogen, parathyroid hormone and osteocalcin. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1994 Sep;41(3):351-7
Arterial hypertension: the improvement with GH treatment (5 references)
  1. Holmer H, Svensson J, Rylander L, Johannsson G, Rosén T, Bengtsson BA, Thorén M, Höybye C, Degerblad M, Bramnert M, Hägg E, Edén Engström B, Ekman B, Norrving B,  Hagmar L, Erfurth EM. Nonfatal stroke, cardiac disease, and diabetes mellitus in hypopituitary patients on hormone replacement including growth hormone. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007 Sep;92(9):3560-7
  2. Feldt-Rasmussen B, Lange M, Sulowicz W, Gafter U, Lai KN, Wiedemann J, Christiansen JS, El Nahas M; APCD Study Group. Growth hormone treatment during hemodialysis in a randomized trial improves nutrition, quality of life, and cardiovascular risk. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2007 Jul;18(7):2161-71
  3. Graham MR, Baker JS, Evans P, Kicman A, Cowan D, Hullin D, Davies B. Evidence for a decrease in cardiovascular risk factors following recombinant growth hormone administration in abstinent anabolic-androgenic steroid users. Growth Horm IGF Res. 2007 Jun;17(3):201-9
  4. van Dijk M, Bannink EM, van Pareren YK, Mulder PG, Hokken-Koelega AC. Risk factors for diabetes mellitus type 2 and metabolic syndrome are comparable for previously growth hormone-treated young adults born small for gestational age (sga) and untreated short SGA controls. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007 Jan;92(1):160-5
  5. Caidahl K, Eden S, Bengtsson BA. Cardiovascular and renal effects of growth hormone. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1994 Mar;40(3):393-400
Coronary heart disease and cardiac hypofunction: the association with lower GH and/or IGF-1 levels (1 reference)
  1. Conti E, Andreotti F, Sciahbasi A, Riccardi P, Marra G, Menini E, Ghirlanda G, Maseri A. Markedly reduced insulin-like growth factor-1 in the acute phase of myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001 Jul;38(1):26-32
Coronary heart disease: the association with higher GH levels (GH resistance: high GH/low IGF-1) (3 references)
  1. Dizdarević-Hudić L, Kusljugić Z, Baraković F, Hajder M, Hudić I. Do growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor 1 affect prognosis in patients with killip I and II class acute myocardial infarction? Acta Clin Croat. 2016 Sep;55(3):345-353.
  2. Ng LL, Bhandari SS, Sandhu JK, Quinn PA, Squire IB, Davies JE, Struck J, Bergmann A, Jones DJ. Growth hormone for risk stratification and effects of therapy in acute myocardial infarction. 2015;20(6-7):371-5.
  3. Hu WS, Hwang JM. Association of serum cytokines, human growth hormone, insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I, IGF-II and IGF-binding protein (IGFBP)-3 with coronary artery disease. Chin J Physiol. 2012 Aug 31;55(4):267-73.
Coronary heart disease and chronic hear tailuire: the improvement with GH treatment (1 reference)
  1. Castagnino HE, Lago N, Centrella JM, Calligaris SD, Farina S, Sarchi MI, Cardinali DP. Cytoprotection by melatonin and growth hormone in early rat myocardial infarction as revealed by Feulgen DNA staining. Neuroendocrinol Lett; 2002 Oct-Dec;23(5/6):391-395
Cardiac hypofunction: the association with lower GH and/or IGF-1 levels (4 references)
  1. Thomas JD, Dattani A, Zemrak F, Burchell T, Akker SA, Gurnell M, Grossman AB, Davies LC, Korbonits M. Characterisation of myocardial structure and function in adult-onset growth hormone deficiency using cardiac magnetic resonance. Endocrine. 2016 Dec;54(3):778-787.
  2. Ozdogru I, Tanriverdi F, Dogan A, Kaya MG, Tugrul Inanc M, Kalay N, Topsakal R, Unluhizarci K, Atmaca H, Kemal Eryol N, Kelestimur F. Impaired longitudinal myocardial velocities in patients with growth hormone deficiency improves after hormone replacement therapy. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2007 Sep;20(9):1093-9.
  3. Minczykowski A, Gryczynska M, Ziemnicka K, Sowinski J, Wysocki H. The influence of growth hormone therapy on ultrasound myocardial tissue characterization in patients with childhood onset GH deficiency. Int J Cardiol. 2005 May 25;101(2):257-63
  4. Moisey R, Barker D, Lewis N, Sharp L, Clements RE, Goldspink DF, Tan LB, Orme S. Reduced cardiac functional reserve and quality of life in adults with Growth Hormone Deficiency. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2009 Oct;71(4):543-8.
Cardiac function: the improvement with GH treatment (3 references)
  1. Thomas JD, Dattani A, Zemrak F, Burchell T, Akker SA, Gurnell M, Grossman AB, Davies LC, Korbonits M. Characterisation of myocardial structure and function in adult-onset growth hormone deficiency using cardiac magnetic resonance. 2016 Dec;54(3):778-787.
  2. Ozdogru I, Tanriverdi F, Dogan A, Kaya MG, Tugrul Inanc M, Kalay N, Topsakal R, Unluhizarci K, Atmaca H, Kemal Eryol N, Kelestimur F. Impaired longitudinal myocardial velocities in patients with growth hormone deficiency improves after hormone replacement therapy. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2007 Sep;20(9):1093-9.
  3. Minczykowski A, Gryczynska M, Ziemnicka K, Sowinski J, Wysocki H. The influence of growth hormone therapy on ultrasound myocardial tissue characterization in patients with childhood-onset GH deficiency. Int J Cardiol. 2005 May 25;101(2):257-63
Heart failure: the association with GH deficiency (1 reference)
  1. Arcopinto M, Salzano A, Giallauria F, Bossone E, Isgaard J, Marra AM, Bobbio E, Vriz O, Åberg DN, Masarone D, De Paulis A, Saldamarco L, Vigorito C, Formisano P, Niola M, Perticone F, Bonaduce D, Saccà L, Colao A, Cittadini A; T.O.S.CA. Trattamento Ormonale Scompenso CArdiaco) Investigators. Growth hormone deficiency is associated with worse cardiac function, physical performance, and outcome in chronic heart failure: insights from the T.O.S.CA. GHD study. PloS One. 2017 Jan 17;12(1)
Heart failure and cardiac hypofunction: the improvement with GH treatment (5 references)
  1. Cittadini A, Marra AM, Arcopinto M, Bobbio E, Salzano A, Sirico D, Napoli R, Colao A, Longobardi S, Baliga RR, Bossone E, Saccà L. Growth hormone replacement delays the progression of chronic heart failure combined with growth hormone deficiency: an extension of a randomized controlled single-blind study. JACC Heart Fail. 2013 Aug;1(4):325-330.
  2. Cittadini A, Saldamarco L, Marra AM, Arcopinto M, Carlomagno G, Imbriaco M, Del Forno D, Vigorito C, Merola B, Oliviero U, Fazio S, Saccà L. Growth hormone deficiency in patients with chronic heart failure and beneficial effects of its correction. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009 Sep;94(9):3329-36.
  3. Le Corvoisier P, Hittinger L, Chanson P, Montagne O, Macquin-Mavier I, Maison P. Cardiac effects of growth hormone treatment in chronic heart failure: A meta-analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007 Jan;92(1):180-5
  4. Follin C, Thilén U, Ahrén B, Erfurth EM. Improvement in cardiac systolic function and reduced prevalence of metabolic syndrome after two years of growth hormone (GH) treatment in GH-deficient adult survivors of childhood-onset acute lymphoblastic leukemia. . J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006 May;91(5):1872-5
  5. Colao A, Di Somma C, Cuocolo A, Spinelli L, Acampa W, Spiezia S, Rota F, Savanelli MC, Lombardi G. Does a gender-related effect of growth hormone (GH) replacement exist on cardiovascular risk factors, cardiac morphology, and performance and atherosclerosis? Results of a two-year open, prospective study in young adult men and women with severe GH deficiency. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005 Sep;90(9):5146-55
Stroke and other cerebrovascular disorders: the association with GH and/or IGF-1 levels (2 references)
  1. Holmer H, Svensson J, Rylander L, Johannsson G, Rosén T, Bengtsson BA, Thorén M, Höybye C, Degerblad M, Bramnert M, Hägg E, Edén Engström B, Ekman B, Norrving B,  Hagmar L, Erfurth EM. Nonfatal stroke, cardiac disease, and diabetes mellitus in hypopituitary patients on hormone replacement including growth hormone. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007 Sep;92(9):3560-7
  2. Rudman D, Nagraj HS, Mattson DE, Jackson DL, Rudman IW, Boswell J, Pucci DC. Hyposomatomedinemia in the men of a Veterans Administration Nursing Home:prevalence and correlates.Gerontology. 1987;33(5):307-14
Obesity and visceral adiposity: the association with lower GH and/or IGF-1 levels (25 references)
  1. Liang S, Yu Z, Song X, Wang Y, Li M, Xue J. Reduced growth hormone secretion is associated with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in obese children. Horm Metab Res. 2018 Mar;50(3):250-256.
  2. Lubrano C, Tenuta M, Costantini D, Specchia P, Barbaro G, Basciani S, Mariani S, Pontecorvi A, Lenzi A, Gnessi L. Severe growth hormone deficiency and empty sella in obesity: a cross-sectional study. Endocrine. 2015 Jun;49(2):503-11.
  3. Qing L, Wei R, Chan L, Xiaoya Z, Xin X. Sensitivity of various body indices and visceral adiposity index in predicting metabolic syndrome among Chinese patients with adult growth hormone deficiency. J Endocrinol Invest. 2017 Jun;40(6):653-661.
  4. Uzunova I, Kirilov G, Zacharieva S, Shinkov A, Borissova AM, Kalinov K. Individual risk factors of the metabolic syndrome in adult patients with growth hormone deficiency–a cross-sectional case-control study. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes. 2015 Jan;123(1):39-43.
  5. Dichtel LE, Yuen KC, Bredella MA, Gerweck AV, Russell BM, Riccio AD, Gurel MH, Sluss PM, Biller BM, Miller KK. Overweight/Obese adults with pituitary disorders require lower peak growth hormone cutoff values on glucagon stimulation testing to avoid overdiagnosis of growth hormone deficiency. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2014 Dec;99(12):4712-9.

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Obesity and visceral adiposity: the improvement with GH treatment (35 references)
  1. Dichtel LE, Bjerre M, Schorr M, Bredella MA, Gerweck AV, Russell BM, Frystyk J, Miller KK. The effect of growth hormone on bioactive IGF in overweight/obese Growth Horm IGF Res. 2018 Jun;40:20-27.
  2. Liang S, Xue J, Li G. Effects of recombinant human growth hormone administration on cardiovascular risk factors in obese children with relative growth hormone deficiency. Lipids Health Dis. 2018 Apr 3;17(1):66.
  3. Irizarry KA, Bain J, Butler MG, Ilkayeva O, Muehlbauer M, Haqq AM, Freemark M. Metabolic profiling in Prader-Willi syndrome and nonsyndromic obesity: sex differences and the role of growth hormone. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2015 Dec;83(6):797-805.
  4. Hong JW, Park JK, Lim CY, Kim SW, Chung YS, Kim SW, Lee EJ. A weekly administered sustained-release growth hormone reduces visceral fat and waist circumference in abdominal obesity. Horm Metab Res. 2011 Dec;43(13):956-61.
  5. Karimi M, Koranyi J, Franco C, Peker Y, Eder DN, Angelhed JE, Lönn L, Grote L, Bengtsson BA, Svensson J, Hedner J, Johannsson G. Increased neck soft tissue mass and worsening of obstructive sleep apnea after growth hormone treatment in men with abdominal obesity. J Clin Sleep Med. 2010 Jun 15;6(3):256-63.

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Obesity: no effect of growth hormone treatment (1 reference)
  1. Attanasio AF, Mo D, Erfurth EM, Tan M, Ho KY, Kleinberg D, Zimmermann AG, Chanson P; International Hypopituitary Control Complications Study Advisory Board. Prevalence of metabolic syndrome in adult hypopituitary growth hormone (GH)-deficient patients before and after GH replacement. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010 Jan;95(1):74-81.
Diabetes: the association with lower GH and/or IGF-1 levels (6 references)
  1. Touskova V, Trachta P, Kavalkova P, Drapalova J, Haluzikova D, Mraz M, Lacinova Z, Marek J, Haluzik M. Serum concentrations and tissue expression of components of insulin-like growth factor-axis in females with type 2 diabetes mellitus and obesity: the influence of very-low-calorie diet. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2012 Sep 25;361(1-2):172-8.
  2. Kanazawa I, Yamaguchi T, Sugimoto T. Effects of intensive glycemic control on serum levels of insulin-like growth factor-I and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate in Type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Endocrinol Invest. 2012 May;35(5):469-72.
  3. Kanazawa I, Yamaguchi T, Sugimoto T. Serum insulin-like growth factor-I is negatively associated with serum adiponectin in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Growth Horm IGF Res. 2011 Oct;21(5):268-71.
  4. Gannon MC, Nuttall FQ. Effect of a high-protein diet on ghrelin, growth hormone, and insulin-like growth factor-I and binding proteins 1 and 3 in subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Metabolism. 2011 Sep;60(9):1300-11.
  5. Holmer H, Svensson J, Rylander L, Johannsson G, Rosén T, Bengtsson BA, Thorén M, Höybye C, Degerblad M, Bramnert M, Hägg E, Edén Engström B, Ekman B, Norrving B,  Hagmar L, Erfurth EM. Nonfatal stroke, cardiac disease, and diabetes mellitus in hypopituitary patients on hormone replacement including growth hormone. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007 Sep;92(9):3560-7

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Diabetes: the improvement with GH treatment (5 references)
  1. Ahn CW, Kim CS, Nam JH, Kim HJ, Nam JS, Park JS, Kang ES, Cha BS, Lim SK, Kim KR, Lee HC, Huh KB. Effects of growth hormone on insulin resistance and atherosclerotic risk factors in obese type 2 diabetic patients with poor glycaemic control. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2006 Apr;64(4):444-9
  2. Gotherstrom G, Svensson J, Koranyi J, Alpsten M, Bosaeus I, Bengtsson B, Johannsson G. A prospective study of 5 years of GH replacement therapy in GH-deficient adults: sustained effects on body composition, bone mass, and metabolic indices. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001 Oct;86(10):4657-65
  3. Svensson J, Fowelin J, Landin K, Bengtsson BA, Johansson JO. Effects of seven years of GH-replacement therapy on insulin sensitivity in GH-deficient adults. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002 May;87(5):2121-7
  4. Clayton KL, Holly JM, Carlsson LM, Jones J, Cheetham TD, Taylor AM, Dunger DB. Loss of the normal relationships between growth hormone, growth hormone-binding protein and insulin-like growth factor-I in adolescents with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1994 Oct;41(4):517-24
  5. Yuen KC, Frystyk J, White DK, Twickler TB, Koppeschaar HP, Harris PE, Fryklund L, Murgatroyd PR, Dunger DB. Improvement in insulin sensitivity without concomitant changes in body composition and cardiovascular risk markers following fixed administration of a very low growth hormone (GH) dose in adults with severe GH deficiency. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2005 Oct;63(4):428-36

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